201. Surgical Ethics

201. Surgical Ethics

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440. The Fiberoptic Breakthrough: Hopkins, Hirschowitz, and the Flexible Scope

By the mid-20th century, endoscopy and laparoscopy were ready for major advancement. Although instruments had evolved into semi-flexible designs, visualization was still limited by glass optics and heat-producing light sources. A breakthrough toward fully flexible, high-resolutio ...  Show more

439. The Semiflexible Era: Schindler and the Pre-Fiberoptic Revolution

By the early 20th century, endoscopy had evolved from candle-lit brass tubes into electrically illuminated rigid instruments. The decisive shift toward flexibility — the stage upon which Rudolf Schindler would make his contribution — was the product of several converging advances ...  Show more

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